The Development of Anecdotes in the Language of Mysticism from the Fourth Century to the End of the Sixth Century

Anecdote is the most important type of story in the language of mysticism, and all types of stories in this language are derived from Anecdote. However, this type of literature in mystical literature has undergone changes and transformations that cannot be overlooked in order to analyze the evolution of the story in the language of mysticism. In the early works of Muslim mystics, such as those by Shaqiq Balkhi (Death:194 AH), Harith al-Mashabisi (165-243 AH), Abul Hossein Nouri (Death; 295 AH), Abu Saeed Kharaz (277-297 AH), and Junaid Baghdadi (Death; 298 AH), stories as such are not found and the development of mystical stories goes back to the time after this century. This article employs a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the development of mystical stories and their influencing factors from the 4th century to the end of the 6th century. It concludes that, over these three centuries, mystical stories evolved from their original form and underwent several subtle developments. These include the gradual removal of the narrator or narrators, multiple narrations of a single story, the combination and nesting of stories, explanation and interpretation of narratives, the fusion of prose stories with structured order, literary arrangement, increased variety of characters, and the emergence of animal tales, humorous stories, and secret narratives. It has also been concluded that the developmental factors of these anecdotes include the importance of anecdotes in the education of seekers, the expansion of mysticism, the increase in
the number of mystics accompanied by knowledgeable and informative sayings, an artistic approach to anecdotes to enhance their educational effectiveness, and the influence of sermons on mystical literature and interpretivism.
Introduction
The anecdote (ḥekayat) is the most important narrative genre in Persian mystical literature and, due to its significance, has continually undergone change and transformation. From the earliest mystical anecdotes, which were relatively simple, to the stories of the Masnavi, which constitute the most outstanding examples of mystical narrative, this genre has experienced a complex and uneven process of development. Our investigations show that up to the third century AH, no fully developed anecdotes are found in the extant works of Muslim mystics. Instead, what exists are simple forms such as allusions to Quranic stories, references to the Prophetic biography, transmission of religious traditions, expressions of mystical experience, allegory, and dialogue—forms that later became the foundations of mystical anecdotes. The present article is devoted to examining the most important changes and transformations in mystical anecdotes from the fourth to the end of the sixth century, as well as the factors contributing to these transformations.
Materials and Methods
This study examines Persian mystical anecdotes from the earliest Persian Sufi works to the end of the sixth century, with reference to Sharḥ al-Ta’arruf, Kashf al-Maḥjoob, Bustan al-ʿArifīn, Ṭabaqat al-Ṣufiyya, Ruḥ al-Arwaḥ, the Persian works of Aḥmad Ghazālī, the works of Sanai, Ḥalat va Sokhanan-e Abu Saeed, Asrar al-Towḥid, and the works of Aṭṭar. Using a descriptive–analytical method, the article discusses the changes and transformations of these anecdotes and the factors influencing them over the course of three centuries.
Results and Discussion
Early mystical anecdotes, such as the following example from Kashf al-Maḥjoob, possess a simple plot structure: “They asked the old man, ‘Do you wish to see God?’ He said, ‘No.’ They asked, ‘Why?’ He said, ‘Because Moses wished and did not see, while Muhammad did not wish and did see.’” (Hujwiri, 1384: 487) Only occasionally do we encounter manipulation or elaboration of the plot, a feature found mainly in the anecdotes of Asrar al-Towḥid (Muḥammad b. Munawwar, 1376: vol. 1, p. 173). This development culminates in Rumi’s Masnavi, where various types of transformation in mystical anecdotes can be observed. Undoubtedly, Sanai and ʿAṭṭar played a major role in this process. In general, from the fourth to the end of the sixth century—especially during the fifth and sixth centuries—the following changes and transformations can be observed in mystical anecdotes:

The Gradual Inclusion or Omission of the Narrator(s)

One reason for the inclusion of narrators in early mystical anecdotes is the influence of Ahl al-ḥadith on Sufi authors. Another reason lies in genre conventions; for instance, the ṭabaqat genre is particularly suited to naming narrators. Moreover, early Sufi authors seem to have considered it necessary to present the foundations of Sufism as reliable by citing trustworthy narrators. Nevertheless, the mention of narrators gradually disappears from mystical anecdotes, and in later poetic as well as prose narratives—such as Tazkarat al-Awliyaʾ—little trace of narrators remains.

Multiple Versions of a Single Anecdote

In mystical literature, it is common to encounter different versions of the same anecdote. These variations may stem from stylistic differences among mystic authors, personal devotion to a particular Sufi figure, or even ideological disagreements.

The Combination of Anecdotes

By the combination of anecdotes is meant the linking of two anecdotes (A and B), such that anecdote B functions as the result or outcome of anecdote A. According to Fouladi, the components of an anecdote consist of three parts: introduction, body, and conclusion (Fouladi, 2022: 410). When the conclusion itself takes the form of a new anecdote, narrative combination occurs.

Embedding of Anecdotes

Embedding occurs when one or more subsidiary anecdotes appear within the main anecdote. “The technique of inserting a story within a story is a distinctive Indian narrative method. Many works such as the Mahabharata, Panchatantra, and others of Indian origin are constructed around a frame story that begins the book, within which successive stories are told, until the initial story concludes at the end” (Sattari, 1368: 17).

Explanation and Interpretation of Anecdotes

In the historical evolution of mystical anecdotes up to the end of the sixth century, we encounter anecdotes in which the mystic author considers explanation and interpretation to be necessary. This appears in three forms:

First presenting an idea and then citing an anecdote to confirm it;
Dividing an anecdote into two or more parts and providing commentary for each;
Offering an interpretation after narrating the anecdote.

The Blending of Prose Anecdotes with Poetry. This blending occurs in two ways. In the first, poetry forms an integral part of the prose anecdote. In the second, the author, translator, or commentator embellishes the text with poetry to clarify the anecdote and draw attention to its central point. In both cases, the verses may come from various poets.

Versification of Anecdotes

Ḥadiqat al-Ḥaqiqa marks the beginning of the incorporation of verse anecdotes into mystical literature. After Sanai, we also find numerous verse-based mystical anecdotes in the works of Aṭṭar.

Literary Ornamentation of Anecdotes

Persian Sufi prose acquires rhythmic qualities in the supplications of Khaje ʿAbdullah Anṣari. Moreover, Ruḥ al-Arwaḥ is rich not only in musicality but also in literary devices and imagery (see Gholam-Rezaie, 1388: 131).

Diversity of Characters in Anecdotes

During this period, mystical anecdotes gradually come to include stories of women, stories of lovers, and stories of the “wise madmen” (uqala al-majanin).

The Emergence of Animal Anecdotes

In early Sufi texts of the fifth century AH, the most advanced use of animal anecdotes occurs when animals, while remaining animals, function as narrative characters. In later Sufi anecdotes, animals acquire human traits, and dialogues take place either between humans and animals or between animals themselves.

The Emergence of Humorous Anecdotes

If we assume that mystics were among the earliest pioneers of refined humor in Persian literature (see Fouladi, 1386: 55–96), the extensive use of humorous anecdotes in mystical prose begins with Ruḥ al-Arwaḥ, reaches greater prominence in Asrar al-Towḥid, and attains its peak in Tazkarat al-Awliya.

The Emergence of Symbolic Anecdotes

 It appears that in the fourth century, the earliest symbolic anecdotes emerge in the network of bird symbolism. This symbolic network remains the most prevalent symbolic system in mystical language until the sixth century, the period of ʿAṭṭar’s Manṭeq al-Ṭayr.

Factors in the Evolution of Mystical Anecdotes

Five major factors contributed to these developments:

The importance of anecdotes in the spiritual training of seekers;
The expansion of mysticism and the increase in the number of mystics with instructive states and sayings;
An artistic approach to anecdotes to enhance their pedagogical effectiveness;
The influence of preaching sessions on mystical literature;
Mystics’ tendency toward allegorical interpretation and their attention to the interpretive potential of anecdotes.

Conclusion
From the fourth to the sixth century, mystical anecdotes gradually evolved from their original simple form and underwent various transformations, which can be summarized as follows: Generic conventions and the influence of ahl al-ḥadith affected the inclusion of narrators; narrators were mentioned when attribution was important and omitted when the narrative content took precedence. Multiple versions of a single anecdote have emerged due to authorial technique, personal attachment, or ideological differences. The use of combined anecdotes became more prominent in the sixth century. Explanation and interpretation of anecdotes appear in the earliest texts, with variations arising from modes of presentation rather than underlying principles. Embedded anecdotes are mostly functional, while in some of ʿAṭṭar’s works, they serve a structural role, such that removing subsidiary stories would undermine the main narrative. Literary ornamentation is particularly prominent in Samani’s Ruḥ al-Arwaḥ and later becomes more common in verse anecdotes. Stories of women, lovers, and wise madmen become especially noticeable from the second half of the fifth century onward. Sanai initiates animal anecdotes, which become significant in the works of Sanai, Samani, and Aṭṭar. Humorous anecdotes exist from the outset of mystical literature and attain greater variety and scope in ʿAṭṭar’s works. The blending of prose and verse becomes more institutionalized in the works of Aḥmad Ghazali, Asrar al-Towḥid, and Ruḥ al-Arwaḥ. Overall, the didactic importance of anecdotes, the expansion of mysticism, artistic innovation, the influence of preaching assemblies, and allegorical interpretation all played decisive roles in the evolution of mystical anecdotes.